May 1969 Electronics World
Table of Contents
Wax nostalgic about and learn from the history of early electronics. See articles
from
Electronics World, published May 1959
- December 1971. All copyrights hereby acknowledged.
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Nuclear energy was a big topic in
the 1960s and 1970s as it was believed to be the future of electrical power generation
for the world (at least up until the
3
Mile Island and Chernobyl incidents occurred). Ships and submarines were being powered
by reactors that allowed them to run for months at a time without refueling, atmospheric
emissions were practically zero, and the fuel source was abundant (albeit not simple
to obtain). Medical and space applications were increasingly dependent on a greater knowledge
of radiation and its effects on humans, plants, animals, and electronics. Many people
by that time were working with and around radiation sources, so having knowledge of which
is and is not safe was paramount to responsible activities. Proper operation of many
types of equipment depend on adequate shielding from the effects of radiation. Probably
the two major discriminators between safe and not safe are the level of intensity at
the point of interest and whether the radiation is ionizing or non-ionizing.
Author Joseph Wujek published a 3-part article in Electronics World in 1969 to address
the issues. Here is Part 1 -
Types & Relationships,
Part 2 - Detection Methods,
and Part 3 - Measuring
Techniques.
Atomic Radiation: Types & Relationships - Part 1
By Joseph H. Wujek, Jr.
Not knowing what radiation is all about is as dangerous as the phenomenon itself.
This article explains some fundamental concepts.
Editor's Note: This is the first of a three-part series of articles which attempts
to disperse the fog of misunderstanding surrounding radioactivity. Part 2, scheduled
to appear in the June issue, will cover radiation detection processes, while Part 3,
which will appear in the July issue, covers radiation measurements.

Fig. 1 - Conceptual model of the helium atom. The nucleus is in the
center and the electrons orbit in shells around orbit.
The public understands little of atomic energy; and, in general, neither does the
technical community (except, of course, those actively engaged in atomic physics work).
The purpose of this article is to briefly discuss some of the common types of atomic
radiation and, hopefully, remove some of the mystery which surrounds them.
However, before exploring the radiation process, it would be helpful if we first discussed
the makeup of an atom.
The Building Blocks of Atoms
Fig. 1 is a simple conceptual model of a helium atom. The nucleus, which is composed
of neutrons and protons each having a mass approximately 1.7 X 10-27 kilogram,
is in the center and the electrons revolve in orbital shells about it. An electron has
a mass of about 9.1 X 10-31 kilogram, or about 1/1900th that of a proton or
neutron. (One kg equals 2.2 pounds in a 1-g gravitational field.)
The neutron, as the name suggests, is electrically neutral. But the electron carries
a negative charge of 1.6 X 10-19 coulomb; the proton has the same charge but
it is of opposite polarity. An atom which is not ionized has an equal number of electrons
and protons, and thus a net charge of zero, the "+" nuclear charge neutralizing the "-"
electron charge.
The number of protons in the nucleus determines the element. There are over 100 elements
known to scientists, some of which are extremely rare. The sum of the protons and neutrons
in the nucleus determines the atomic mass of the element. Atoms of the same element having
different masses are called isotopes. The most abundant isotope of oxygen, for example,
has eight protons and eight neutrons - a mass of 16. But isotopes having masses of 17
(8 protons, 9 neutrons) and 18 (8 protons, 10 neutrons) exist. Except for properties
due to the mass difference, these oxygen atoms behave (chemically) in identical fashion.
Incidentally, many isotopes are unstable, decaying and disintegrating spontaneously.
More than 1300 natural and artificial radioisotopes have been identified.
When the chemical symbol for an element is written, a subscript is used for the number
of protons (the "+" charge, on the nucleus, also called atomic number Z) and a superscript
for the nuclear mass (sum of protons and neutrons). Thus an oxygen atom of 8 protons
and 9 neutrons is written: "8O17," the "O" being the chemical symbol
for oxygen.
Symbols for elements can be found in physics and chemistry texts and other scientific
handbooks.
Particle Energy
The standard unit of energy used in atomic physics is the electron-volt, abbreviated
eV. The familiar prefixes "k" for thousand and "M" for million are also used, as keV
and MeV. One electron-volt is the energy imparted to an electron when accelerated through
a potential of one volt. For energies W, below about 10 keV, the relation ½Mv2
is sufficiently accurate, where M0 is the "rest mass" of the particle (kilograms),
v is the velocity (meters/second), e is the electron charge (1.6 X 10-19 coulomb),
and V is the potential difference in volts. For particles of higher energy, the Einstein
relation must be used:
, where c = 3 X 108
meters per second, or the velocity of light in vacuum. Therefore, we see that we cannot
accelerate a particle to the speed of light for, if we try, v = c, and the denominator
goes to zero, yielding an undefined value of W.
One other equation is useful, the expression W = hv. Here, h is Planck's constant,
or 6.62 X 10-34 joule-second. The Greek letter v is the frequency of a wave.
The French physicist, de Broglie, detailed the relationship between particles and waves
but, for our purposes, it is sufficient to recognize that v = c / λ where λ
is the wavelength of the radiation. Thus, for an x-ray of λ = 1.24 X 10-12
meter v = 3 X 108 meters per sec/1.24 X 10-12 meter or 2.42 X 1020
hertz. Then the energy is simply W - hv = 6.62 X 10-34 joule-second X 2.42
X 1020 per second = 1.6 X 10-13 joule, or in electron-volts (dividing
by the electron charge) 106 e V, or MeV. It is useful to recognize that a
volt is equivalent to one joule per coulomb.
Having thus prepared ourselves with a few simple relationships, we next examine the
principal kinds of atomic radiation encountered in the laboratory and in nature.
Atomic Radiation
The four levels of atomic radiation which we will discuss are: alpha (α) particles,
beta (β) particles, neutrons, and gamma (γ) and x-rays. We consider γ
and x-rays as one level of radiation since they are both, essentially, high-energy rays.
The least damaging (from a biological standpoint) and the easiest to shield are α
particles. Alpha particles are helium ions which have lost two electrons and thus have
a charge of + (2 X 1.6 X 10-19) coulomb. A moderate energy a beam may be attenuated
by placing a barrier, such as aluminum foil, in the path of the particles. Paper and
cloth also provide shielding from α radiation.
Free electrons, or β rays, are more difficult to shield than α particles.
They interact with the bound electrons of atoms and produce x-rays, thus creating a secondary
source of radiation.
Neutron radiation, in general, requires a thicker shield than either α or β
radiation. Because of the relatively high mass and volume of neutrons, interactions occur
when these particles bombard matter. Materials which provide good shielding against neutron
radiation are termed moderators. Moderator material in the form of rods is commonly used
to control neutron flux levels in reactors. By inserting or removing control rods from
a reactor core, more or fewer neutrons are permitted to interact and the reactor heat
(power level) is regulated.
Gamma radiation and x-rays require the heaviest shielding. Lead is the most common
material used for this application. It is convenient to think of γ and x-rays as
electromagnetic energy of very short wavelength. However, all radiation (and all matter)
exhibits the dual properties of particle and wave phenomena, but α, β and
neutrons are considered particles, while γ and x-rays are thought of as waves.
These "visualizations" are useful models, but we should not forget that they are both
particle and wave.
Radiation can be generated in various ways. Some elements have isotopes which are
naturally radioactive and emit radiation, while other elements have radioactive isotopes
which are artificially created, or both kinds may exist. Artificial radio-isotopes are
produced by the high energy bombardment of elements by particles. Usually particle accelerators
are used to provide scientists with artificial isotopes.
The half-life of an isotope refers to the time required for one-half of the radioactive
material to change into another elemental form. Half-lives vary with the particular isotope,
and may be as short as picoseconds (10-12 second) or as long as 1012
years and more. As an example of radioactive decay consider the reaction 92U238
--> 90U234 + α + γ.
This reaction is read, "Uranium 238 (Z of 92) decays to Thorium 234 (Z of 90), yielding
an α particle (2He4) ++ and γ-ray energy." Notice that
the subscripts and superscripts balance, since the α particle is a helium (He)
ion. The half-life of this reaction is 4.5 X 109 years, meaning that if we
start today with a specific quantity of 92U238, in 4.5 X 109
years half of the U238 would still be reacting, while the other half would
have degenerated into the stable atom Th234. We have omitted the subscripts
the last writing since the meaning is clear. It is this kind measurement of carbon-14
content that allows geologists estimate ages of rocks.
Biological Hazards
Even the briefest of discussions of nuclear radiation must point out the safety hazards
associated with these emanations. Since the human body is a complex of chemical compounds,
atomic radiation interacts with body molecules to produce chemical changes. Some of these
changes may beneficial, as in the case of radiological treatment of cancerous tissue.
But, in general, excessive radiation causes detrimental effects in body chemistry. Often
permanent changes in-cell structure result, causing, among other things, mutations in
the offspring of the victim. Such mutations may take several generations to become evident.
Other serious interactions can occur in blood cells, leading a condition not unlike
leukemia in symptoms. And while radiation can be used to treat cancer, radiation can
also produce cancerous growths. Damage to the body organs is another biological hazard
which must be avoided. Tests conducted over long periods of time have led to safety standards
for radiation dosage, which we will examine after we define me of the units used in this
work.
Radiation Units
The principal units used in biological radiation work are: the roentgen, the rep,
the rad, and the rem.
The roentgen, named after the German physicist who at the end of the 19th century
discovered x-rays, is the quantity of x or gamma radiation which will generate 2.08 X
109 ion-pairs in one cubic centimeter of air, measured at standard conditions
(approximately 14.7 lbs. per square inch of atmospheric pressure and a temperature of
32°F). Ion-pairs refers to the stripping of electrons from atoms by incident radiation
energy, giving rise to one ion and one electron. The roentgen (abbreviated R) does not
take into account exposure time. Time is important because the longer the exposure the
more damaging the radiation burn. Thus, the roentgen as a measurement unit has limited
use in biological radiation work.
Making an Isotope
Several processes are used to create radioactive isotopes. The most common is the
(n, γ) process where a neutron is captured by
a target atom and a gamma photon emitted immediately. Since there is no change in the
atomic number, the resultant element remains the same as the target material. In the
(n, p) process, the neutron entering the target material has sufficient energy to cause
a proton to be released. Therefore, the atomic number is changed by 1 and the affected
atom transmuted into a different element. On the other hand, the capture of a high-energy
neutron in the (η, α) process causes an alpha particle to be emitted and the
atomic number reduced by 2. In the fission process, several isotopes of an element can
be produced. Typically, these are fragments of uranium atoms which have undergone fission
(radioactive atoms from atomic numbers 30 through 64). -Editor
The rep, or roentgen equivalent physical, relates radiation to ionization in tissue
and yields a measurement which is more meaningful in human exposure. The rep is approximately
equivalent to 1.1 times the energy intake of tissue as compared to air. Hence, if in
a given radiation flux, the air absorbs x energy units, tissue will absorb x times 1.1
energy units. But, again, time is not included.
The rad, or radiation absorbed dose, is a measure of energy absorption in any material
and is equivalent to approximately 1.2 times the energy intake of the medium as compared
to air.
The rem, or roentgen equivalent man, is the quantity of any type of radiation which
will produce the same biological action in man as the absorption of 1 roentgen of x-irradiation.
The rem may be calculated by multiplying the roentgen level by certain constants which
depend upon the type of radiation involved. These factors, called the relative biological
effectiveness (RBE) factor, vary from one to 20 or more. Thus 1 roentgen of x-ray or
gamma radiation has an RBE of 1, while a 5 MeV neutron has an RBE of 10. So 1 R of x-ray
radiation is equivalent of 1 rem, while 1 R of the 5 MeV neutron radiation is 1 X 10
= 10 rem.
Since safety levels or radiation depend upon time exposure as well as the area of
the body exposed, there is some variation in the level of absorbed radiation permitted.
For safety sake, those who work in radiation areas should be cognizant of the Atomic
Energy Commission's Standards for radiation protection.
Posted January 11, 2018