NEETS Module 17 - Radio-Frequency Communications Principles
Pages i - ix,
1-1 to 1-10,
1-11 to 1-20,
2-1 to 2-10,
2-11 to 2-20,
2-21 to 2-30,
2-31 to 2-37,
3-1 to 3-10,
3-11 to 3-20,
3-21 to 3-30,
3-31 to 3-40,
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4-1- to 4-10,
4-11 to 4-21,
5-1 to 5-10,
5-11 to 5-20, Index
Figure 4-12. - Parabolic antenna cluster.
Receivers All satellite communications earth terminals are equipped with specially
designed, highly sensitive receivers. These receivers are designed to overcome down-link power losses and to
permit extraction of the desired communications information from the weak received signal. The terminals currently
in use have specially designed preamplifiers mounted directly behind the antennas. Transmitters
All earth terminal transmitters generate high-power signals for transmission to the communications satellites.
High-powered transmitters and highly directional, high-gain antennas are combined in this configuration. This is
necessary to overcome up-link limitations and to ensure that the signals received by the satellite are strong
enough to be detected by the satellite. Each transmitter has an exciter/modulator and a power amplifier. The
modulator accepts the input signal from the terminal equipment and modulates an IF carrier. The exciter
translates the IF signal to the up-link frequency and amplifies it to the level required by the power amplifier.
Transmitters used in earth terminals have output power capabilities that vary from 10 watts to 20 kilowatts,
depending on the type used and the operational requirements. Telemetry Equipment
Telemetry equipment is included in all communications satellite systems. This permits monitoring of the operating
conditions within the satellite. Telemetry can be used also for remote control of satellite operations, such as
energizing axial jets for changing the spin axis of the satellite. Q7. What type of antennas
are generally used at earth terminals?
Q8. Why do earth terminals require highly sensitive receivers? Q9. What is the
range of earth terminal transmitter output power?
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SHIPBOARD RECEIVE-ONLY EQUIPMENT SYSTEMS The purpose of a shipboard
receive-only system is to receive fleet multichannel teletypewriter broadcasts, which, as you recall from chapter
1, require no receipt. These are transmitted from a ground station and relayed to naval vessels by satellite.
Figure 4-13 is a typical shipboard receive-only system. In this system the transmitted carrier may be frequency
modulated (FM) or phase-shift-key (PSK) modulated for TTY operation. The receiving antennas for this system are
positioned about the ship. They are arranged in a manner (normally one in each quadrant of the ship) that at no
time allows the line-of-sight to be blocked between the relay satellite and one or more of the antennas. Incoming
signals pass from the antennas to an amplifier-converter. Each amplifier-converter routes an IF signal on one line
of a twin axial cable that connects it to the combiner- demodulator. An operating power and local-oscillator
signal are coupled from the combiner-demodulator to each amplifier-converter on the other line of the cable used
for the IF signal. Because of signal path variations, shading, and reflections, the incoming signals are subject
to random phase and amplitude variations. The combiner operation performed within the combiner-demodulator removes
the phase variations from each input signal. It then measures the amplitudes of the signals for optimum combining
and sums the signals. After being combined, the signal is demodulated and coupled from a receiver transfer
switchboard to a telegraph demultiplex terminal.

Figure 4-13. - Typical shipboard receive only system.
Q10. What is the function of shipboard receive-only equipment? Q11. What types
of modulation are shipboard receive-only equipment designed to receive?
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SATELLITE ACQUISITION AND TRACKING An essential operation in communicating by
satellite is the acquisition (locating) of the satellite by the earth terminal antenna and the subsequent tracking
of the satellite. Initial acquisition depends upon an exact knowledge of the position of the satellite. In
combination with the geographic location of the earth terminal, knowing the position of the satellite enables you
to compute accurate antenna pointing information. The degree of difficulty in locating and tracking a satellite is
determined largely by what type orbit the satellite is in. The locating and tracking of a synchronous
satellite is relatively simple. This is because the satellite appears to be stationary. Locating a
near-synchronous satellite is also relatively simple because of the slow relative motion of the satellite However,
the movement of a near-synchronous satellite is enough that accurate tracking is required to keep the narrow beam
antenna pointed toward the satellite. Satellites in medium altitude circular orbits or in elliptical orbits are
more difficult to acquire and to track because of the rapid changes in position. Orbital Prediction To acquire and track a satellite in space, the earth terminal
antennas must be provided with very accurate pointing information. Antenna pointing information is based upon the
orbital prediction of the satellite. This information is derived from an EPHEMERIS table. This table provides the
coordinates of a satellite or a celestial body at specific times during a given period. After you know the
ephemeris data of a satellite, you can predict for any given location the apparent track of the satellite as
viewed from that location. The constants defining an orbit are initially obtained by the process of
tracking. At the time of launch, the rocket is tracked by radar from lift-off to orbit and then until it passes
out of sight. Tracking data obtained in this way is sufficient for making rough predictions of the orbit. These
predictions are made rapidly with a computer and sent to tracking stations all over the world. These other
tracking stations watch for the satellite during its first trip and record additional data. During the first week
of orbiting, tracking stations all around the world are obtaining progressively more accurate data concerning the
Satellite. This data is put into a computer where corrections of earlier estimates of the orbit are made.
Once the initial predictions are complete and the satellite link becomes operational, very little change in these
calculations is made. The orbits of a satellite will change slightly over a period of time; however, these changes
are so gradual that predictions will be accurate enough to be used for weeks or even months without further
corrections. When the orbits are known precisely, an ephemeris can be calculated for each satellite of the system.
Antenna Pointing Antenna pointing instructions for each satellite must be computed
separately for each ground station location. A satellite that bears due south of station A at an elevation of 25
degrees may simultaneously bear due southeast of station B at an elevation of 30 degrees. Antenna pointing
instructions are determined by taking into consideration the orbital prediction and the latitude and longitude of
each ground station. To establish radio contact with a satellite, the ground station needs to know the
bearing and elevation of a satellite. This allows the antenna to be properly pointed.
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Acquisition The acquisition of satellite signals by a ground station equipped
with large antennas and operated at microwave frequencies places severe requirements on the system. Several
factors must be considered. These factors are discussed below: SPATIAL-TIME FACTOR. - Very
accurate antenna pointing information is available to earth terminals from the satellite control facility located
in Sunnyvale, California. Because of equipment limitations, a small search about the predicted location of the
satellite must often be conducted to make initial contact. Either a manual or automatic scan is made around a
small area close to the point where the satellite appearance is predicted. FREQUENCY CONTROL. - The
frequency of a radio signal received from a satellite is not generally the exact assigned down-link frequency.
This variation depends upon the type of orbit of the satellite. The greatest frequency variations in signals from
satellites occur in medium altitude circular or elliptical orbits. The smallest frequency variations occur in
signals from satellites in near-synchronous or synchronous orbits. Tracking When
a particular satellite has been acquired, the earth terminal antenna will track that satellite for as long as it
is used as a communications relay. Several methods of tracking are in actual use; however, we will explain
PROGRAMMED TRACKING and AUTOMATIC TRACKING.
PROGRAMMED TRACKING. - In programmed tracking the known orbital parameters of the satellite are fed
into computation equipment to generate antenna pointing angles. The antenna pointing angles are fed as commands to
the antenna positioning servomechanisms. (You may want to review servos in NEETS, Module 15, Principles of
Synchros, Servos, and Gyros.) These point the antenna in the required direction. The amount of data and
computations involved in using programmed tracking is extensive. These are a result of the antenna mount flexing
and atmospheric and ionospheric bending of radio waves. Because of these uncertainties, programmed tracking is not
used extensively.
AUTOMATIC TRACKING. - In automatic tracking, the equipment generates antenna pointing information
by comparing the direction of the antenna axis with the direction from which an actual satellite signal is
received. Automatic tracking systems track the apparent position of a satellite. The direction of arrival of the
radio signal and the real position of the satellite is not required. The automatic tracking system uses a
servomechanism to move the antenna. Once the satellite has been located, the servomechanism generates its own
pointing data. This eliminates the requirement for continuous data input and computation.
SATELLITE OUTAGE TIME. - The satellite outage time specifications allow for stewing (moving) the earth
terminal antennas, acquiring the satellite signal, and checking for circuit continuity at HAND OVER. (Hand over is
the period of time for one earth terminal to yield control to another as a satellite moves out of its area of
coverage.) This hand over period represents an outage time. If the control terminal is unable to hand over to
another terminal within a specified time, other arrangements are made. For example, control may be retained or
transferred to another terminal within the coverage area. There are several reasons why a terminal may be unable
to assume control on time; these reasons may combine to increase the outage time. The difference of drift
velocities of the satellites leads to bunching within a coverage area. This causes gaps in coverage and increases
outage times. When two or more satellites simultaneously occupy the same space of the terminal antennas, they will
interfere with each other. This prevents reliable communications. Other factors leading to increased outage times
are SATELLITE-SUN CONJUNCTION (increased noise while the satellite passes near the sun), SATELLITE ECLIPSE
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(absence of power from solar cells), and satellite failures. The distribution of outage times is a
complicated function of time and earth-station locations. With careful coverage coordination, maximum
communications effectiveness is obtained. Q12. Why is satellite acquisition and tracking
important?
ROLE OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS
In the context of a worldwide military communications network, satellite communications systems are very
important. Satellite communications links add capacity to existing communications capabilities and provide
additional alternate routings for communications traffic. Satellite links, as one of several kinds of
long-distance links, interconnect switching centers located strategically around the world. They are part of the
defense communication systems (DCS) network. One important aspect of the satellite communications network is that
it continues in operation under conditions that sometimes render other methods of communications inoperable.
Because of this, satellites make a significant contribution to improved reliability of Navy communications.
ADVANTAGES OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS
Satellite communications have unique advantages over conventional long distance transmissions. Satellite links are
unaffected by the propagation variations that interfere with HF radio. They are also free from the high
attenuation of wire or cable facilities and are capable of spanning long distances. The numerous repeater stations
required for line-of-sight or troposcatter links are no longer needed. They furnish the reliability and
flexibility of service that is needed to support a military operation. Capacity
The present military communications satellite system is capable of communications between backpack, airborne, and
shipboard terminals. The system is capable of handling thousands of communications channels.
Reliability
Communications satellite frequencies are not dependent upon reflection or refraction and are affected only
slightly by atmospheric phenomena. The reliability of satellite communications systems is limited only by the
equipment reliability and the skill of operating and maintenance personnel. Vulnerability
Destruction of an orbiting vehicle by an enemy is possible. However, destruction of a single communications
satellite would be quite difficult and expensive. The cost would be excessive compared to the tactical advantage
gained. It would be particularly difficult to destroy an entire multiple-satellite system such as the twenty-six
random-orbit satellite system currently in use. The earth terminals offer a more attractive target for physical
destruction. These can be protected by the same measures that are taken to protect other vital installations.
A high degree of freedom from jamming damage is provided by the highly directional antennas at the earth
terminals. The wide bandwidth system that can accommodate sophisticated anti-jam modulation techniques also
lessens vulnerability.
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Flexibility Most operational military satellite earth terminals are housed in
transportable vans. These can be loaded into cargo planes and flown to remote areas. With trained crews these
terminals can be put into operation in a matter of hours. Worldwide communications can be established quickly to
remote areas nearly anywhere in the free world. SATELLITE LIMITATIONS Limitations
of a satellite communications system are determined by the technical characteristics of the satellite and its
orbital parameters. Active communications satellite systems are limited by two things. Satellite transmitter power
on the down links and receiver sensitivity on the up links. Some early communications satellites have been limited
by low-gain antennas. Power The amount of power available in an active satellite
is limited by the weight restrictions imposed on the satellite. Early communications satellites were limited to a
few hundred pounds because of launch- vehicle payload restraints. The only feasible power source is the
inefficient solar cell. (Total power generation in the earlier satellites was less than 50 watts.) As you can see,
the rf power output is severely limited; therefore, a relatively weak signal is transmitted by the satellite on
the down link. The weak transmitted signal is often reduced by propagation losses. This results in a very weak
signal being available at the earth terminals. The level of signals received from a satellite is comparable to the
combination of external atmospheric noise and internal noise of standard receivers. Special techniques must be
used to extract the desired information from the received signal. Large, high-gain antennas and special types of
preamplifiers solve this problem but add complexity and size to the earth terminal. (The smallest terminal in the
defense communication systems network has effectively an 18-foot antenna and weighs 19,500 pounds.) Development of
more efficient power sources and relaxation of weight restrictions have permitted improved satellite performance
and increased capacity.
Receiver Sensitivity Powerful transmitters with highly directional antennas are used at earth
stations. Even with these large transmitters, a lot of signal loss occurs at the satellite. The satellite antenna
receives only a small amount of the transmitted signal power. A relatively weak signal is received at the
satellite receiver. This presents little problem as the strength of the signal received on the up link is not as
critical as that received on the down link. The down-link signal is critical because the signal transmitted from
the satellite is very low in power. Development of high-gain antennas and highly sensitive receivers have helped
to solve the down-link problem. Availability The availability of a satellite to
act as a relay station between two earth terminals depends on the locations of the earth terminals and the orbit
of the satellite. All satellites, except those in a synchronous orbit, will be in view of any given pair of earth
stations only part of the time. The length of time that a nonsynchronous satellite in a circular orbit will be in
the ZONE OF MUTUAL VISIBILITY (the satellite can be seen from both terminals) depends upon the height at which the
satellite is circling. Elliptical orbits cause the satellite zone of mutual visibility between any two earth
terminals to vary from orbit to orbit. These times of mutual visibility are predictable. Figure 4-14 illustrates
the zone of mutual visibility.
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Figure 4-14. - Zone of mutual visibility.
Q13. What are the two limitations to an active satellite communications system?
FUTURE SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS Satellite communications are becoming well established in
the Navy. In October 1983 the Department of the Navy established the Naval Space Command, which assumed
operational responsibility for Navy space systems plus coordination responsibility with other operational
activities. Most ships have satellite communications capability. New systems have been installed on ships and are
fully compatible with other electronic systems and equipment. Communications via satellite has increased existing
Navy communications capabilities for the command and control of naval forces. Satellite communications has not
replaced all existing means of radio communications. However, it is a major step in modernizing Navy
communications. It has relieved the Navy of its total dependence on HF radio transmission and reduced the need for
many HF ground stations overseas. A recent step in the advancement of satellite communications was the
start of the DSCS Phase III. The first Phase III satellite was launched into orbit by the space shuttle in the
summer of 1984. Seven satellites will be placed in space during this phase. Figure 4-15 shows a Phase III
satellite being tested in a simulated space environment, Figure 4-16 shows the Phase III satellite as it appears
in space. Phase III will develop the use of 40-watt, solid-state amplifiers to replace the currently used
traveling-wave tube (TWT). It will also be used to develop new type filters. These filters will provide increased
channel bandwidth, which will provide additional communications capacity.
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Figure 4-15. - DSCS Phase III satellite being tested.

Figure 4-16. - DSCS Phase III satellite as it appears in space.
The survivability of reliable communications for the command and control of our strategic nuclear forces is
paramount. Space systems perform many missions more effectively than earthbound systems.
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Spaceborne communications increase the effectiveness of military operations. The Department of Defense
is engaged in the development of new communications techniques and systems, including some that are space based.
As the use of space continues its march forward, vital new opportunities for national defense will continue to
materialize. This will improve the survivability of our strategic communications against nuclear and electronic
attack.
More information on satellite communications can be found in Navy publication NTP 2, Navy Satellite Operations.
This publication was written to concisely explain the role of the Navy in the Defense Communications Satellite
Program. It also issues procedures for effective, coordinated use of available satellite resources.
SUMMARY
Now that you have completed this chapter, a short review of what you have learned will be helpful. The
following review will refresh your memory of satellite communications, equipment, and theory. A
PASSIVE SATELLITE is one that reflects radio signals back to earth. An ACTIVE SATELLITE
is one that amplifies the received signal and retransmits it back to earth. REPEATER
is another name for an active satellite. The UP LINK is the frequency used to transmit a
signal from earth to a satellite. The DOWN LINK is the frequency used to transmit an
amplified signal from the satellite back to earth. A SYNCHRONOUS ORBIT is one in which
the satellite moves or rotates at the same speed as the earth. An ASYNCHRONOUS ORBIT
is one where the satellite does not rotate or move at the same speed as the earth. A NEAR
SYNCHRONOUS ORBIT is one in which the satellite rotates close to but not exactly at the same speed as the
earth.
PERIGEE is the point in the orbit of a satellite closest to the earth. APOGEE
is the point in the orbit of a satellite the greatest distance from the earth. The ANGLE OF
INCLINATION
is the angular difference between the equatorial plane of the earth and the plane of orbit of the satellite.
INCLINED ORBITS are orbits where there is some amount of inclination. These include equatorial
and polar orbits. An EQUATORIAL ORBIT is an orbit that occurs when the plane of a
satellite coincides with the plane of the earth at the equator. A POLAR ORBIT is an orbit
that has an angle of inclination of or near 90 degrees. A MEDIUM ALTITUDE ORBIT is an
orbit from 2,000 to 12,000 miles above the earth. The rotation rate of the earth and satellite are quite
different, and the satellite moves quickly across the sky.
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An ECLIPSE is when the satellite is not in view or in direct line of sight with the
sun. This happens when the earth is between them. An EPHEMERIS is a table showing the
precalculated position of a satellite at any given time. PROGRAMMED TRACKING uses known
satellite orbital parameters to generate antenna pointing angles. AUTOMATIC TRACKING is
done by the equipment comparing the direction of the antenna axis and the direction of the received signal.
HAND OVER is the period of time for one earth terminal to yield control to another as a satellite
moves out of its area of coverage. SATELLITE-SUN CONJUNCTION is when the satellite and
sun are close together and the noise from the sun prevents or hampers communications. A SATELLITE
ECLIPSE is an eclipse where the rays of the sun don't reach the satellite. This prevents recharging of
the solar cells of the satellite and decreases the power to the transmitter. The ZONE OF MUTUAL
VISIBILITY
is where the satellite can be seen by both the up- and down-link earth terminals.
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ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS Q1. THROUGH Q13.
A1. Passive and active. A2. Earth terminals. A3.
Approximately one-half. A4. The extreme polar regions. A5. The lack of
suitable power sources. A6. To allow maximum solar cell exposure to the sun and satellite
antenna exposure to earth terminals. A7. Large, high-gain parabolic antennas.
A8. To overcome satellite transmitter low power and permit extraction of the desired information from
the received signal. A9. Up to 20 kilowatts. A10. To receive fleet
multichannel TTY broadcasts. A11. FM or PSK. A12. To ensure earth terminal
antennas are always pointed towards the satellite. A13. Satellite down-link transmitter power
and up-link receiver sensitivity.
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NEETS Table of Contents
- Introduction to Matter, Energy,
and Direct Current
- Introduction to Alternating Current and Transformers
- Introduction to Circuit Protection,
Control, and Measurement
- Introduction to Electrical Conductors, Wiring
Techniques, and Schematic Reading
- Introduction to Generators and Motors
- Introduction to Electronic Emission, Tubes,
and Power Supplies
- Introduction to Solid-State Devices and
Power Supplies
- Introduction to Amplifiers
- Introduction to Wave-Generation and Wave-Shaping
Circuits
- Introduction to Wave Propagation, Transmission
Lines, and Antennas
- Microwave Principles
- Modulation Principles
- Introduction to Number Systems and Logic Circuits
- Introduction to Microelectronics
- Principles of Synchros, Servos, and Gyros
- Introduction to Test Equipment
- Radio-Frequency Communications Principles
- Radar Principles
- The Technician's Handbook, Master Glossary
- Test Methods and Practices
- Introduction to Digital Computers
- Magnetic Recording
- Introduction to Fiber Optics
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